The harappan civilization

Indus Civilization history by Nikhil

The Indus Civilisation represents the first phase of urbanisation in India. The civilisation that appeared in the north￾western part of India and Pakistan in third millennium BCE is collectively called the Indus Civilisation. Since Harappa was the first site to be identified in this civilisation, it is also known as Harappa Civilisation. 

Origin

This civilisation did not appear all of a sudden. The beginnings of the Neolithic villages in this region go

back to about 7000 BCE at the Neolithic site of Mehrgarh. Harappan culture is divided into various phases:

1. Early Harappan 3000–2600 BCE
2. Mature Harappan 2600–1900 BCE
3. Late Harappan 1900–1700 BCE

The urban phase was prevalent in the mature Harappan period and began to decline afterwards

Harappan civilisation c. 2600-1900 BCE

The general features of mature Harappan settlement

• The Harappan civilization was urban does not mean that all or even most of its settlements had an urban character, a majority were in fact villages. the brisk urban rural interaction, the typical range of Harappan artifacts reached even small villages village sites.

Indus Valley Civilization Important Sites

• The Indus Civilisation and the contemporary cultures covered nearly 1.5 million sq. km area in India and Pakistan. The settlements of Sutkagen-dor in the west on the Pakistan– Iran border; Shortugai (Afghanistan) in the north; Alamgirpur (Uttar Pradesh, India) in the east and Daimabad (Maharashtra, India) in the south are the boundaries of this civilisation. Its core area was in the 

  regions of Pakistan, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana.

• Some Indus Valley sites have also been found as far away as Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

• In India: Kalibangan (Rajasthan), Lothal, Dholavira, Rangpur, Surkotada (Gujarat), Banawali (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab). In Pakistan: Harappa (on river Ravi), Mohenjodaro (on Indus River in Sindh), Chanhudaro (in Sindh).

Planned Towns

Harappa (Punjab, Pakistan), Mohenjo-Daro (Sindh, Pakistan), Dholavira, Lothal, and Surkotada (Gujarat, India), Kalibangan and Banawali (Rajasthan, India), and Rakhigarhi (Haryana, India) are the major cities in the Harappan period. Fortification, well￾planned streets and lanes and drainages are noticed in the Harappan towns. A civic authority perhaps controlled the planning of the towns. The Harappans used baked and unbaked bricks, and stones for construction. The towns had a grid pattern and drainages were systematically built. The houses were built of mud bricks while the drainages were built with burnt bricks. Houses had more than one floor. The site of Mohenjo-Daro had a planned town, built on a platform. It has two distinct areas. One is identified as a citadel and another as the lower town. The houses had bathrooms paved with burnt bricks and proper drains. Some houses had stairs indicating the existence of an upper floor. The houses had multiple rooms. Many of the houses had a central courtyard with rooms all around. The citadel area had important residential structures that were either used by the public or select residents. 

In Mohenjo-Daro, a building has been identified as a warehouse. The Great Bath is a tank situated within a courtyard. The corridors were present on all four sides and stairs are seen on the northern and southern sides. It was well paved with several adjacent rooms. Some structures are identified as granary. The bricks were laid watertight with gypsum mortar. It had drainage. It is associated with a ritual bath.The structures identified as granary or Great Bath should be seen as archaeologists’ interpretations.

Houses architecture

• The houses mostly consist of rooms arranged around a central courtyard.

• Doorways and windows generally face the side lanes and rarely open into the main streets.

• The view from the lane into the Courtyard was blocked of by a wall there are remains of staircases 

• Some of the houses at mohenjo daro were two stories high or more is also suggested by thickness of the walls

• Small houses attached to large one may have been the quarters of service groups working for wealthy City dwellers.

Drainage system 

• Many houses for groups of houses with separate bathing areas and toilets. 

• At Harappan mohenjo daro Terracotta dream pipes directed waste water into open Street drain made of baked bricks these connected into large trains along the main street

• Mohenjo daro is noted for its large number of Wells. Harappa had many few Wells but a depression in the center of the city may represent a tank or water reservoir that served the city's inhabitants.

Subsistence strategy

• The resource potential of this area was rich enough to generate the food surplus is that are important aspect of urbanization

• The diversity of subsistence base may also have been an important sustaining factor if one food resource field people could turn to another.

• Naturally there were regional variations in the plants grown by farmers 

• wheat has been found at mohenjo daro and Harappa 

• barley at mohenjo daro Harappa and kalibangan

• sesamum at Harappa 

• Harappa has also given evidence of watermelon seeds, peas, and dates 

• rice occurs at Harappa, kalibangan, Lothal and rangpur 

• millets have been identified at Harappa, Surkotada and shortunghai

• Grapes were known so the Henna mehndi.

Crafts specialization 

• Early writing tended to contrast the planness of Harappan artifacts with the opulence of their Egyptian and mesopotamian counterparts but nowadays the technological sophistication and beauty of some of the Harappan artifacts are recognised.

• While some sites specialized in production of singles for a few items, others such as Harappa manufactured a wide range of goods. But craft activity was often localized in certain parts of the settlement.

• Excellent pieces of red pottery designed in black have been excavated. Faience was used to make beads, bangles, earrings, and vessels.

• Civilization also was advanced in making artworks. A statuette of a naked ‘Dancing Girl’ has been found from Mohenjo Daro and is believed to be 4000 years old. A figure of a bearded Priest-King has also been found from Mohenjo Daro.

Seals 

• Thousands of seals have been discovered by archaeologists from the Harappan sites.

• most of the seals are square or rectangular. 

• The average size of the square seal is about 2.54 CM but there are large one a little over 6.35 CM

• A few cylindrical and round seals have also been found 

• most of the seals are made of  steatite but there are few silver, faience and calcite one as well 

• Two fine silver seals with the unicorn motif were discovered at mohenjo daro and some copper and soapstone ones were found at Lothal.

• The seal was coated with an alkali and heated giving it a white lustres surface 

• the carving is intaglio i.e it is sunken engraving with the impression appearing in relief.

• Motives include the elephant tiger antelo crocodile hair harmtable buffalo rhinoceros and one horn mythical animal referred to as unicorn there are also composite animal human figures and plants 

• Most of the seals have a short description. some rectangular seals have a writing but no motif.

Religion 

• No structures like temples or palaces have been found.

• The people worshiped male and female deities. A seal which was named ‘Pashupati Seal’ has been excavated and it shows an image of a three-eyed figure. Marshall believed this to be an early form of Lord Shiva.

• Disposal of the dead was by burial in wooden coffins. Later on, in the H Symmetry culture, bodies were cremated in urns.

The Decline of Harappa 

• Archaeologists now believe that the civilization did not come to an abrupt end but gradually declined. People moved eastwards and cities were abandoned. Writing and trade declined.

• Aryan invasion theory is most popular explanation for which there is least evidence.

• Ramaprasad Chanda, was the first who put forward the idea that civilization was destroyed by Aryan invaders.

• Mortimer Wheeler, elaborated the theory on the basis of references in the Rig Veda to various kinds of forts, attacks on walled cities and epithet puramdara (fort destroyer) given to the God Indra.